Caffeine Coffee Stimulant

Caffeine Coffee Stimulant Caffeine Consumption Miranda Opolka Abstract Caffeine is the most commonly consumed ‘drug in the world that is said to have been discovered in the Paleolithic Period. It is found in basically everything that people consume including all types of food, soft drinks, energy drinks, coffee, tea, and chocolate. The purpose of caffeine is to help strengthen attentiveness and diminish exhaustion. Taking too much or abusing the use of caffeine, can cause side effects, but can all be avoided if taken in reasonable amounts. So many beneficial effects come with consuming this drug from helping people in sports, to losing weight, to increasing alertness, and repelling things such as snails and slugs. Testing is done often to find more ways that caffeine is useful in individuals lives. In the authors opinion it is believed that caffeine has many more positive effects that overcome the negative effects. Caffeine Consumption INTRODUCTION AND HISTORY Caffeine has been around for many years and is having an impact on more and more people everyday. A great deal of evidence denotes that the consumption of caffeine goes all the way back to the Paleolithic Period (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Some may think that caffeine is bad for the body and does no good, however many Americans consume caffeine everyday in their diet. Although caffeine has both positive and negative effects, there are much more positive effects if taken responsibly. Caffeine is a drug that stimulates the central nervous system, which causes high alertness. Taking too much of any drug is going to lead to the chances of having side effects. The side effects can be prevented by decreasing the amount of caffeine that is taken into the body. Thus, from increasing alertness, mood, psychomotor performance, to helping as a dietary aid and extending exercise in people suffering from heart failure, to being used as a repellent for mollusks, caffeine is used in many ways and has many positive effects that go along with it. People need to have a better understanding of caffeine before making judgments. CONSUMPTION The main source of caffeine consumption comes from soft drinks. Caffeine is an additive used in such drinks to sweeten the taste. It can show no flavor depending on the amount taken, but the positive effects that come with it are an increased attention rate and better mood. Because of these effects, more people thrive off caffeinated drinks. Looking around, there are soft drink machines everywhere giving more people access to this stimulant. Yet, many people believe that they should not be in schools or places where it is efficient for kids because they say it is so unhealthy for them (Keast Riddell, 2006). Others will argue this in saying that caffeine is good for the body as long as its not abused. This is a true statement, and as a result educating more people on the effects of caffeine would be very helpful to everyone. Besides soda and other soft drinks, caffeine is also found in coffee. Coffee has many positive effects to it, such that coffee stimulates the brain and increases energy and mood, and can help in preventing diseases such as skin, liver, and colon cancer, and some others. Both the combination of daily exercise and a cup of coffee are said by scientists to help in the prevention of skin cancer. This has been tested and proven on hairless mice, which have extremely sensitive skin to the sun. Stated from The Times of India, one group was given caffeinated water to drink, another group exercised on a running wheel at its own convenience, while the third group both drank caffeine and exercised on the wheel, and the control group neither drank nor exercised. All of the mice were exposed to ultraviolet radiation, which the results in comparing all the groups to the control group showed that the caffeine drinkers showed an increase of 95% in ultraviolet radiation stimulating apoptosis. Apoptos is is the process where cells with damaged DNA are destroyed against illness. The second group showed a 120% increase, while the mice that both consumed caffeine and exercised showed close to a 400% increase (â€Å"Coffee May Prevent Skin Cancer,† 2007). A study was also developed to research the effects of caffeine on liver cancer. More than 90,000 Japanese were used in a study and it was found that people that drank coffee daily or close to every day had reduced the risk of liver cancer by nearly half compared to those who never drank coffee. â€Å"The American Cancer Society estimates that 18,920 cases of liver cancer were diagnosed in the United States last year and some 14,270 people died of the illness† (â€Å"Coffee May Help Prevent Liver Cancer,† 2008). As a result, it is well stated that caffeine can reduce the chances of liver cancer. According to many scientists, there is a highly antioxidant compound that is found in coffee that reduces the chances of colon cancer, which is the second leading cause of cancer death in the United States. This compound found in coffee is called methylpyridinium, however is not found in raw coffee beans but is created during the roasting process. Tests were brought out to scrutinize this compound even more, so specially equipped extracts of the coffee were exposed to certain lab situations of human intestinal cells for three days and were compared to cells that were not exposed to coffee. In the experiment, coffee extracts were found to have increased the activity levels of phase II enzymes. Then, to determine whether it had the same effect in living systems, a group of twenty-four rats was evenly divided into three groups. Each group was fed different diets, either a normal diet, a diet mixed with coffee extract, or a normal diet containing pure methylpyridinium. The tests showed t hat rats that were fed the coffee extract had a 24-40% increase in phase II enzymes and the group with the pure methylpyridinium showed an increase in the enzyme activity levels (â€Å"Highly Active Compound Found in Coffee May Prevent Colon Cancer,† 2003). Results show that coffee is proven to fight cancer in living systems. Caffeine can help in such diseases as cancer in which caffeine and another substance called theophylline are found in many products like coffee, chocolate, and many soft drinks. It is said that they can block enzymes that are crucial for cell growth, which means that one day it could be used to stop cell growth all together and avoid blood clots that can cause heart attacks and strokes (â€Å"Caffeine Boost in Cancer Battle,† 2002). It is not just coffee that prevents cancer, it is the caffeine in coffee that is preventing this disease. As most know, there is no cure for cancer, although the tests above show the many ways in which caffeine can help prevent one of the leading causes of deaths. Despite the positive effects of consuming coffee, here in the United States, drinking coffee is consumed most by adults. However, in Guatemala, it is very common among children. It is one of the first liquids given to babies after milk in Guatemala, even though it may affect the cognitive function by damaging iron levels. It is also known to hinder with the iron absorption and iron status of pregnant women and their babies, which is why it is said that pregnant woman should give up coffee during the term of pregnancy because it could cause miscarriages (Engle et al., 1999). Nonetheless, not consuming coffee while pregnant and not giving coffee to such young children can avoid these negative effects. SPORTS AND DIET Caffeine is known as one of the most widely used pick-me-ups in sports because of its ability to increase alertness and mood. Many athletes depend on this stimulant to help them carry on with their game if they are feeling a little drowsy or incapable to perform in an expected manner. Using caffeine is often used to improve physical and mental performance. It improves physical performance by causing alertness and giving the athlete energy to perform and improves mental performance by stimulating the central nervous system. This helps the athletes have higher levels of concentration (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Using caffeine instead of other types of steroids and drugs is much cheaper and has less health effects. It also has less ineligibility cases compared to many other drugs. Being cut from a team is not the only consequence if caught using steroids or drugs, but it is also considered a felony. Therefore, many athletes should take caffeine over steroids to increase energy (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Unless caffeine is taken in substantial amounts, some side effects may occur. Taking in massive quantities of caffeine may trigger dehydration that could affect functioning. It may also cause gastrointestinal pain and other side effects, such that caffeine is absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and spread throughout the tissues of the body. Athletes that are abusing the use of caffeine may notice an occurrence in nervousness or an increase in heart rate and may even lead up to seizures or a coma. Caffeine has to be taken with some caution, because of the possible negative side effects that could take place, but remembering to take in only what is needed will help bring out only the positive effects (Magkos Kavouras, 2005). Since caffeine is found in so many foods and over the counter medications, it is becoming to show an increase in all diets around the world. Many people that are trying to lose weight take caffeine pills or eat a diet that is high in caffeine for the energy, similar to those as athletes that use it to enhance performance. Though caffeine pills should not be taken everyday and should be taken early in the day to reduce the chances of losing sleep at night. They help in increasing energy levels and suppressing hunger. This is very helpful for people who do not have the energy to get up and exercise. Some people may need that extra boost to get them started (Striegel-Moore et al., 2006). On the other hand, it is not a fundamental nutrient, nor good for the health if taken too often. Too much can become addictive and cause problems like eating disorders, which is very common among young adults. Eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa or bulimia are found more common among girls than in boys. Many girls in their teens have more pressure on themselves and feel the need to lose extra weight. Consuming large amounts of caffeine will enhance their energy and suppress the need for food, or hunger. Even though they may already be thin, they will continue starving themselves because they believe they are fat. Its a constant battle that never ends and it is a very difficult disease to fight (Striegel-Moore et al., 2006). EFFECTS ON SLEEP When caffeine is consumed in reasonable amounts, everyday consumption of it can be helpful and have many beneficial effects on human behavior and sleep showing more people with enhanced mental functioning. Imagine truck drivers who drive such long distances day and night, consuming caffeine can help stay alert and focused on the road. Many accidents occur in a year because of people falling asleep at the wheel. Taking caffeine for better functioning reasons while driving or other reasons can be very beneficial (Smith, 2002). Regardless of the positive effects of reducing fatigue and better functioning, there are the downfalls of consuming too much caffeine. Too much caffeine has a big effect on a persons sleeping ability. Sleep disorders are becoming more and more known to many children and adults because of the amount of caffeine they are taking in. Large amounts of caffeine taken at night will make it much harder to fall asleep. People face more problems like feeling tired when they wake up or waking up in the middle of the night and not being able to fall back asleep. Although, the majority of people are very good at the amount of caffeine they take in to get the most out of the positive effects (Orbeta et al., 2005). EFFECTS ON HUMAN BEHAVIOR Rather than better mental functioning purposes and an increase in alertness, caffeine is also shown to improve many effects on human behavior. For instance, psychomotor performance is enhanced with caffeine intake. A psychomotor skill deals with being able to make movements that are essential to complete a task, however they are skills that are performed often without even thinking how they are done. Handwriting is an example of a very difficult psychomotor skill where as people have their own unique way of writing, some using the wrist more, or maybe the elbow, or moving the whole arm as they write. Caffeine consumption can improve handwriting and reveal a much larger improvement in handwriting skills if taken in moderate quantities (Tucha et al., 2006). When caffeine is consumed in so many different amounts in many types of foods, it will improve peoples talent to perform certain responsibilities requiring a lot of attention. Also, when dispensed in the same amount, caffeine increases alertness and reduces fatigue. The opposing effects take place when caffeine is consumed in unbearable amounts or by people who are overly sensitive to the drug (Smith, 2002). As a result, caffeine is very helpful in which it can improve vigilance tasks and help people become more focused, so multitasking can be done. USE AS A REPELLENT Caffeine is also used a repellent in which many people probably didnt know. Many products for the use of mollusk control include metaldehyde or methiocarb for the main ingredients. However, both of these ingredients are highly poisonous by inhalation and to all animals. Caffeine is an all-natural product that is categorized as a generally recognized as safe (GRAF) product by the United States FDA. There have been many tests to support that caffeine is a well-proven repellent as well (Hollingsworth, Armstrong, Campbell, 2002). According to Hollingsworth, Armstrong, and Campbell (2002) spray applications containing one to two percent of caffeine have been reported to kill slugs during a test that experienced caffeine as a toxicant against frog pests. Another test (Figure 1) took action upon orchid snails where as they were put into Petri dishes with caffeine while the heart rates were taken under a microscope. Snails with caffeine concentrations of .1% or more had vulnerable and uneven heartbeats after a 24-hour period. The snails with higher caffeine concentrations were dead after 96 hours, or four days. As a result, caffeine has been proven to kill off mollusks and would be a much safer alternative for food crops. Figure 1: Shows the effects of caffeine on orchid snails (Hollingsworth, Armstrong, Campbell, 2002). WITHDRAWAL Taking caffeine on an everyday basis will cause the body to become addicted to the substance and cause withdrawals if missing a day. Withdrawals may include headaches or may cause a change in mood. When the amount of caffeine that is taken in is reduced, the body will become very responsive to adenosine. The responsiveness will cause blood pressure to drop, causing an overload of blood to rush to the head, which leads to a headache. Headaches can last between one to five days and aside from such painful headaches, restlessness, irritability, and constant fatigue may occur (Smith, 2002). All of the negative effects come from consuming too much caffeine. For that reason, if caffeine were used correctly and more sensibly, the negative effects would not take place. Negative effects on any drug can be avoided by following simple directions of not overdosing and if sensitive to the drug, dont take at all. There are so many people that abuse it and take it for all of the wrong reasons. If they took caffeine for the right reasons, they would begin to see positive effects. CONCLUSION In conclusion, researchers are constantly exploring the many ways that caffeine is beneficial and has proven these effects in many cases. The main source of caffeine comes from soft drinks, in which it is an additive used to sweeten the taste. It is also very popular in coffee where it helps prevent against some diseases and has the effect of an increased attention rate and better mood. In sports, athletes thrive off caffeine to enhance performance because it is much cheaper and has less health effects than any other drug or steroid. Becoming an increase in all foods, caffeine is also used in many diets to help increase energy. The biggest factor in using caffeine is sleep. Sleep is unwanted in many situations such as driving and other vigilance tasks. Taking caffeine helps sleep by increasing alertness and mental functioning, while reducing fatigue. Other than increasing alertness and mental functioning, so many other effects take place in the behavior of individuals. Effects on hum an behavior include improving multitasking and developing psychomotor performance, such as improving handwriting skills. Another assured effect that caffeine takes part in is repelling things such as snails and slugs. It is proven much safer than other products and has been tested in many different experiments. Caffeine has much more positive effects that overcome the negative effects. The negative effects of caffeine all come from being abused or taken in too large of quantities, meaning that more people need to understand all of the effects. From athletes trying to enhance performance, people dieting, better functioning, an increase in alertness, to repelling things such as snails and slugs. Caffeine has many effects on the body to help improve behavior. Looking back at all of the beneficial ways in which caffeine helps, provides all the more reasons why it is used so often. References Caffeine boost in cancer battle. (2002, August 22). CNN News. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/08/21/cancer.research/ Coffee may help prevent liver cancer. (2005, February 15). USA Today. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2005-02-15-coffee-liver_x.htm Coffee may prevent skin cancer. (2007, July 31). The Times of India. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Coffee_may_prevent_skin_cancer_ /articleshow/2246470.cms Engle, P.L., et al. (1999). Effects of discontinuing coffee intake on iron deficient Guatemalan toddlers cognitive development and sleep. Early Human Development, 53, 251-269. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ScienceDirect database. Highly Active Compound Found in Coffee May Prevent Colon Cancer. (2003, October 15). Science Daily. Retrieved April 20, 2008, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases /2003 /10/031015031251.htm Hollingsworth, R.G., Armstrong, J.W., Campbell, E. (2002). Caffeine as a repellent for slugs and snails. Nature, 417, 915. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from EBSCOhost database. Keast, R.S.J., Riddell, L.J. (2007). Caffeine as a flavor additive in soft-drinks. Appetite, 49, 255-259. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ScienceDirect database. Magkos, F., Kavouras, S.T. (2005). Caffeine use in sports, pharmacokinetics in man, and cellular mechanisms of action. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 45, 535-562. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from EBSCOhost database. Orbeta, R.L., et al. (2005). High caffeine intake in adolescents: associations with difficult sleeping and feeling tired in the morning. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38, 451-453. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ScienceDirect database. Smith, A. (2002). Effects of caffeine on human behavior. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 40, 1243-1255. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ScienceDirect database. Striegel-Moore, R.H., et al. (2006). Caffeine Intake in Eating Disorders. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 39:2, 162-165. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from Wiley InterScience database. Tucha, O., et al. (2006). The effect of caffeine on handwriting movements in skilled writers. Human Movement Science, 25, 523-535. Retrieved April 2, 2008, from ScienceDirect database.

Creative Writing: All Around the Corner

Mornings would normally be a 7 o'clock rise, day beginning at 8:30, released at 3:20. Today, being the holidays, I can drag myself away from all this for a blissful lie in. A bliss broken by the ‘bring'ing of the phone. â€Å"Yeah right† I thought to myself. â€Å"Answer, don't answer? Give up my wings, stay in heaven?† The choice being obvious, I returned to my daydreaming. However, the rarity of a phone call for me rather than anyone else in the house made me answer the second time round. What a mistake. It was Katie, the definition of moron, ringing for a ‘chat'. I gave up my warm bed to hear her wining voice wine in my ear. â€Å"Yeah† I said. I could have been agreeing to a heart transplant for all I knew but I thought I'd better show I was still on the other end of the line Unfortunately yes was the wrong answer. It then took me a while of bluffing to find out I'd agreed to go for a drink. Catch up. I no longer felt worthy of my blankets. Sasha was my remedy. The friendship Sasha and I shared could not be described as ‘life long', simply because I only met her 6 months ago when she moved here. However, I don't see how time can predict how good a friends you are. We click, and we have fun, We're there for each other, and we give each other space when needed. Sounds like a great friendship to me. A best friend always knows what you need. In my case, my best knows my great need of the retail variety. All life's troubles can be thrown aside in a good few hours at the shops. â€Å"Wait! How superb.† The frock Sasha was admiring could only be described as a Sasha dress. Only she could pull off such extravagant styles and colours and yet still appear so modest and respectable. It makes you wonder who else buys these things. Maybe there's a bigger population of Sashas out there than first thought. And so we hit the shops. The trick is, not to let them know you have absolutely no money whatsoever. Give the illusion that you have it, you just see no need to spend it. However, the small amount of cash we do posess usually goes on the much-needed hourly revival break. We took the seats unoccupied, partially shared with two mid-thirties women. The gossip they didn't mind sharing with the world was amazing. Law suits, affairs, bribery, all coming from one woman's life. Of course this left the other woman to demonstrate listening techniques far too challenging for an average human being. By the look on her face, she seemed to be thinking of something soothing. Chocolate perhaps. It was hard to have our own conversation while still listening to this woman's life story, and so drank silently, occasionally attempting short conversations to cover the fact that, lets face it, the world is a nosy place. A nudge on my leg from Sasha made my leg really sore, but also made me realise who it was standing behind me. I arrived with Sasha for support. I knew that if Katie showed her real mutant self then I'd need back up. Sasha had said she didn't mind, so if she was lying she should learn to tell the truth. I turned round to Katie. She sat down, taking the place of the really good listener who had now left with her friend. Katie's mouth opened, and my ears shut, if they could do such a thing. Its not even as if my concentration span is normally this small. I began to think, â€Å"which do I really prefer. Galaxy or Cadburys?† â€Å"So how are you all?† Katie's manner can be described as nothing but ‘chirpy'. This was a pointless question from the start. We're obviously still living or else we'd have given drinks a miss. â€Å"Not really been up to much have we Sasha.† Usually the case. Boredom seeps round every corner. What is there to do when you're this age? Your either too old to do what you used to, or too young to move on. Never any money, allowance doesn't go anywhere near far enough. â€Å"Family's been doing my head in at the moment. Acting like I still need the potty training.† Sasha always uses these chats to get her family problems off her chest. â€Å"They just give me no respect. The other day I began to tell them of the trip we may plan. Do you have any idea how tormenting they can be. Yeah, perhaps they do ‘have my best interests at heart' but come on, I can look after myself.† With this I have to agree. I've met Sasha's family, and the independence they give her, though very loving, is invisible, simply because it doesn't exist. It was hard not to notice how Katie, even with her chirpy attitude, had managed to dampen our spirits so much. â€Å"Got the energy for another shop Sash?† I personally didn't have the energy to lift my feet, but I wanted to move on from this subject. I didn't feel the same way about my family. Only last month I became a great grandma. It isn't all bad.

Communicating change Essay

When an organization is undergoing changes, the management must communicate to employees to ensure they support the decision. Changes in an organization may cause conflicts especially when all stakeholders are not aware the new aspects to be adopted. To communicate to employees about the changes when an organization is relocating to another state requires the managers to provide the strategies being adopted to safeguard the interests of employees. The management should consider the welfare of the employees by maintaining the employees while the organization is undergoing change. When an organization relocates its operations from one region to another, the management should support the employees to understand the new systems. Management strategies should be changed to match the current needs of the employees (Burke, 2002). When changes are communicated to employees, they may react to support or reject the new policies. When employees accept change, the management should change its management style by adding more opportunities to improve their morale. When employees reject change, the management should adopt a persuasive strategy where they will influence them to adopt the new policies. Some changes may be compulsory for the management to implement and in such cases, there is no option but to influence employees accept the new strategies. Managers should interact with employees to determine their needs so as to implement acceptable strategies. Teams within the organization should be created to create synergies among the employees during the change process. Team leaders should be elected to support other employees. All members of the organization should hold a general staff meeting to discuss about the new systems to be adopted. The organization should be prepared to provide resources to employees to relocate to the new offices. For example, the costs of carrying out the entire process can be covered by the management (Burke, 2002). Reference Burke, W. W. (2002). Organization change: theory and practice. ISBN 0761914838, Sage.

Training is widely used as a learning process - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 27 Words: 8141 Downloads: 5 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Abstract Training is widely used as a learning process whereby employees acquire new skills, knowledge and competence. In this fast changing world, training can be both an anchor and a lifeline. An anchor if it has a clear, focused objective, and a lifeline if it enables employees to keep up with the pace of change and allows companies to survive or even succeed. However, investment in training appears to be under-utilized. Many companies do not evaluate the impact of training programs. Many Human Resources Department (HRD) believe that they have fulfilled their duty of care after organizing training courses for employees. After an extensive literature search, it was found that many companies do not have a system of evaluation or follow-ups to ensure that trainees put into practice the knowledge and skills acquired during training programs. Human Resource (HR) managers believe that it is the responsibility of the trainer and the Head of department to ensure that employees put the learning into practice. But both of them deny this responsibility and hold the HRD accountable. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Training is widely used as a learning process" essay for you Create order It is in this context that the aim of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of training at the Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation Ltd (HSBC). This study uses exploratory as well as descriptive research designs. Survey research was conducted by way of a questionnaire among a sample number of employees who followed training courses and a face-to-face interview with the Recruitment and Development manager. The interview was audio taped, and the data obtained from the questionnaire was analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16. The study reveals that while the employees including the Recruitment and Development manager acknowledge the importance of training, unfortunately there is not a specific evaluation system and follow-ups ensuring that the learning is transferred back into the workplace. It is also discovered that while HSBC is planning to use more e-learning as a method of training, most employees prefer classroom-based, raising serious concerns over training effectiveness at HSBC. Focusing only on this study, it can be concluded that training at HSBC is not completely effective. However more in-depth research could be conducted to compare the effectiveness of different training methods available at HSBC 1.0 Introduction A hundred years ago, change was slow, like the steady flow of an untroubled river. The world is now a much different place to what it was even ten years ago. Most of the time the changes are unpredictable. The current global financial crisis is a vivid proof that the world does not stand still. With approximately eighteen banks currently operating in Mauritius, the banking sector is exposed to increasing levels of international and domestic competition. To innovate and become competitive, its human resources have to innovate in everything they do, be it their minds, their thinking, their skills and competence. While in the manufacturing sector, employee performance failures end up in the reject pile, in the service sector such as the banking sector; employee performance failures are external failures. Those mistakes are visible to the customer and thus every failure has a direct impact on customer satisfaction. Therefore, investing in people through training is a prerequisite. Employees who have the necessary skills can create powerful business advantages that can be very difficult for competitors to duplicate. Countries like Japan are trying to substitute human beings with robots. Indeed, human beings are non substitutable because they possess intelligence and potential that can never be equaled and their inventions proved it. The Taj Mahal, the Eiffel Tower, the Pyramids, the Great Wall and now the computer are all the creation and invention of humans. In Mauritius, government wants to make the Knowledge Hub another pillar of the economy. However, Mauritius is currently suffering from a massive brain drain. Many who are emigrating are highly skilled, such as Doctors, Accountants and IT Developers. School leavers who go abroad for further education rarely come back. As such, the best and brightest are lost to their home country, resulting to a lack of young and skilled people to drive the expanding market place. Therefore, the Human Resources Development Council is offering training grants where employers can recover up to 75% of training costs to encourage companies to provide training to a maximum number of employees. However, it is still debatable whether the training grant is being used effectively since measuring training effectiveness has often been neglected. But simply having all employees attend a training event does not necessarily translate into an improved workplace. The main challenge for any training program is to ensure that the learning is transferred back into the workplace. 1.1 Structure of Dissertation This study is structured as follows: Chapter 1 provides a small overview of HSBC. Chapter 2 offers a theoretical and critical background of the literature review. Chapter 3 summarizes the research approach to conduct the study. Chapter 4 provides a thorough analysis of the data obtained from the survey. Chapter 5 consists of recommendations and provides concluding comments. 1.2 Benefits of the Research The findings of this study are of major importance to HSBC as well as other companies as they assist them in adding value to their company by improving their position as an employer of choice through the delivery of effective training. The findings may also prove useful to lecturers, university students and anyone else with an interest in effectiveness of training programs. 2.0 Company Background 2.1 The HSBC Group HSBC Holdings plc, the parent company of the HSBC Group, is headquartered in London. The Group serves customers from around 9,500 offices in the main regions of the world such as Europe, Asia-Pacific, America, Middle East and Africa. With assets of US$2,527 billion at 31 December 2008, HSBC is one of the worlds largest banking and financial services organizations. In 2002, HSBC launched a campaign to differentiate its brand from those of its competitors, with that pithy phrase: The worlds local bank. In July 2009, HSBC was named Best Global Bank by Euromoney magazine. In addition, HSBC was awarded the Best Global Debt House and the Best Global Transaction Banking House. 2.2 HSBC in Mauritius In Mauritius, HSBC operates 11 full-service branches and an offshore unit, which for many years has played a leading role in facilitating cross-border investment activity. It offers a wide range of products and services to diverse domestic and cross border customer base, from accounts services to credit cards, savings, investments, loans and custodian services. Through its locally incorporated subsidiary, the HSBC Bank (Mauritius) Ltd (HBMU), the bank is able to offer many of its global customers more sophisticated financial products and structures that benefit from the extensive range of international double taxation avoidance treaties that Mauritius has negotiated. In addition, HSBC Mauritius is a leading provider of financial services to local companies across the whole spectrum from SMEs to local Top 100 companies as well as locally listed conglomerates. For three consecutive years, 2005-2007, HSBC has been bank of the year. It is also the second largest credit card issuer in Mauritius. As HSBC Mauritius continues to expand, it has decided to bring together all its non-retail operations under one site in the fast growing Ebene Cybercity in 2008. In May 2009, HSBC Mauritius has launched two Islamic banking products. It becomes the first bank in Mauritius to offer Syariah-compliant banking services. HSBC vision: To be a key value creator by identifying, developing, designing and delivering learning and employee development solutions for business success. HSBC mission: Partnering with our business lines to create value for our shareholders and our external customers. Maintaining a learning culture that energizes and motivates employees to maximize their full potential. Aligning training and employee development support with HSBC strategic imperatives. Core business principles: Outstanding customer service Effective and efficient operations Strong capital and liquidity Prudent lending policy Strict expense discipline HSBC Values: Perceptive Progressive Responsive Respectful Fair 3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Definition of training Training has been defined many times over the years. The Manpower Services Commission (1981 cited by Armstrong 1999) defined training as a planned process to modify attitude, knowledge or skills to achieve effective performance. Similarly, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) defined training as an instructor-led and content-based intervention leading to desired changes in behaviour. For Armstrong (2003, p.549), training is the use of systematic and planned instruction and development activities to promote learning. Moore (2005) found the importance of retaining staff through training by defining training as not only a way to achieve a specified standard of staff competence, but also about investing in employees to retain them. Similarly, Cartwright (2003) viewed training as an investment in people. 3.2 Definition of effectiveness Being effective implies producing powerful effects. According to Bartol et al. (1997), effectiveness is the ability to choose appropriate goals and to achieve them. Similarly, Fraser (1994) defined effectiveness as a measure of the match between stated goals and their achievement. Often, there is confusion between effectiveness and efficiency because there is a degree of inter-relationship. This relationship can best be understood by considering effectiveness as doing the right thing and efficiency as doing things the right way. According to Hunter (2005), efficiency and effectiveness are often mutually exclusive. The latter viewed efficiency as a measure of speed and cost and effectiveness as a measure of quality. For Hearn Wendy, effectiveness comes from taking the time to stop and evaluate, rather than running faster and faster. According to her, people should work smarter not harder. Similarly Ferriss (2007) believed that what people do is more important than how they do things. He also saw efficiency as useless if it is not applied to the right things. 3.3 Objectives of training Business Environment Changes and Challenges Learning Implementation Business Excellence The main aim of training is to bring about suitable changes in employees to equip them with the skills required to do their work properly. According to Armstrong (2003) the main objective of training is to achieve companies human resource development strategies by ensuring that the employees have the skills, knowledge and competence to meet present and future needs. 3.4 Importance of training Training is crucial to a companys success. It plays a large part in determining the effectiveness and efficiency of the establishment (Sharma 1997). The latter agreed that training is a must and that management has no choice between training and no training. According to him, the only choice is to select a suitable training method. Similarly, Truelove (1997) believed that workplace skills have to be refreshed from time to time just as professional soldiers and top sports people train regularly to maintain their skills. Bird (1993) also saw training as important to give employees the necessary knowledge to bring about quality improvement across the company. Batten (1992 cited by Vermeulen and Crous 2000, p.61) described the importance of training by the following words: Train, Train, Train! If people are to do things better, they must have the skills and knowledge to do so. If employees cannot do their jobs because they have not been trained, that will reflect in the departments performance. This is supported by Miller et al. (1998 cited by Moore 2005, p.200): When good training is lacking there is likely to be an atmosphere of tension, crisis and conflict all the time, because nobody is quite sure how the various jobs are supposed to be done and who is responsible for what. Similarly, Smith et al. (2003) viewed training as an essential ingredient for the success and longevity of teams. Eder (1990) wrote about the successful opening of the Mirage mega-casino in Las Vegas due to the training imparted to employees months before the opening of the casino. Clegg (2000) believed that developing staff to their full potential is important and is doubly required during hard times. According to an article published in the journal of Development and Learning in Organizations in 2004, it is exactly when times are tough and businesses are sailing through rough seas that companies need to update employees skills since to do otherwise is like throwing the lifeboats overboard to save on weight. Yet, despite a higher profile for training, there is still little evidence showing that a large number of employers accept the importance of training to organisational success. According to Clegg (2000, p.2), employees are unlikely to mention training as the most important department of the company. The author observed that: Many training departments have a bad image. Many companies will say that training is among their top priorities but almost always they change their mind when money is short. Too much training that is currently undertaken has very little impact on what the trainees do when they return to the workplace at the end of the course. Too much training is uninspiring. As rightly said by Hallier and Butts (2000, p.397), in many companies Training is perceived to be a less varied sphere of activity and not necessarily essential to the running of the organization. Indeed, in any economic environment, it makes no sense to throw money at training because training is still regarded as an unnecessary function. 3.5 Benefits of training Even though training costs money, in most cases the benefits outweigh the costs. Sloman (2005) believed that investing in staff through training bring long-term benefits. Sharma (1997) inferred that training provides the following benefits: Increase in productivity Improve individual and business performance thus obtaining a competitive edge. Improve morale of employees. Reduce supervision Reduce dissatisfactions, complaints, absenteeism and turnover Less accidents and wastage Enable employees to obtain job satisfaction and to progress within the organisation, thus helping the organisation to retain its workforce. Increase in organisational stability and flexibility. Avoid human obsolescence 3.6 Training: an investment or a cost? Sutherland (1999) stipulated that the most important of all capital is that invested in human beings. Law (1998), Vermeulen and Crous (2000) and Sloman (2005) took a position very similar to Sutherland (1999) by stating that people are indeed the most valuable asset of any enterprise. Sharma (1997, p.244) rightly stated: There is no greater organizational asset than the trained motivated personnel. Buzan and Keene (1996) in their book The Age Heresy argued that humans could appreciate in value whilst machinery depreciate in value fast and become redundant. Simarly, Law (1998) commented that human capital is more valuable than property or fixed assets. In contrast to many authors opinion about employees being the most important asset, many companies still consider the development of people as a discretionary cost rather than a necessary investment. For many economists, the worth of something is not determined by its purpose but to its price. Prahalad (1972, p.169) rightly stated: To most line-managers, training has been by far an optional extra, to be indulged in when profits are good and to be dispensed with during lean periods. He further added that traditional accounting practices considers all intangibles such as organizational capability and worth of human resources as expenses but all tangibles such as investment in plant and equipment as investment. Cunningham (2002, p.90) commented that for many organisations training is nice to have, but not an essential. The training budget is the easier option when a company has to reduce costs. As such, companies tend to cut corners which render the training ineffective (Clements and Josiam, 1995). This is an oxymoron. On the one hand, we have companies stating that employees are the most important assets but on the other hand, the same companies contradict themselves by viewing training as a cost rather than a worthwhile investment. All companies talk a lot about people development. But the moment things get tough; companies reduce training budgets, which may be a very short-sighted policy. If companies really believed about employees development, this is the one thing they would ring fence (Clegg 2000). Managers often complain about giving them a better class of workers and their problems will go away. Brown (1992) argued that employers are already equipped with a pretty good class of workers since after all they chose them. Indeed it is managers responsibility to help employees improve. The contributions of employees are often taken for granted though employees contribute a lot. Managers tend to believe in things that are visible to them but those whose contributions they cannot see tend to be neglected by them. Cartwright (2003,p.6) rightly stipulated: Consider what Mickey Mouse is worth to Disney or what a gifted program writer is worth to Microsoft. The value may be impossible to calculate in absolute terms, but it is likely to be many times the conventional worth of either asset. Barrows and Power (1999 cited by Moore 2005, p.200) believed that the alternative to training, that is not to train may even be more expensive because this lead to poor customer service. A lost customer may never return. As such, the lost revenue from poor service exceeds the costs of training a worker properly. 3.7 Effective Training Porter and Parker (1993,p.19) identified four features for successful training: Training must be viewed as a continuous process. Training must be focused so that people receive appropriate courses at the appropriate level of their needs. Training must be planned for the future to include the development of total quality skills and techniques. Training materials must be made customized to suit the particular organization. Organizations tend to believe that training delivered en masse will mean that they have fulfilled their duty of care (Shuttleworth 2004,p.62). The symptoms of ineffective and poor training are many. The most self- evident are dissatisfied customers, haphazard work, performance and quality standards not met, untidy work, low productivity, high production costs, excessive waste, employee dissatisfaction, poor discipline and high labour turnover. In fact, the most effective way to develop people is quite different to conventional skills training, which let us face it most employees regard as a pain in the neck. Clegg (2000) argued that it is no longer good to rely on the way things have always been done and the only way to make training more effective is to be creative. Sloman (2005) suggested that if an effective training program is in place, it could help employees realize their potential and thus benefit both the employees and the organization. According to Vermeulen and Crous (2000), for training to be effective, it must not only be planned in a systematic and objective manner but it must also be continuous to meet changes in technology, changes involving the environment in which an organisation operates, its structure and most important of all, the employees who work there. However, Harris (1995) concluded that managers tend to select training programmes according to budgets and time available, but not according to the needs of employees. Conversely, Cunnigham (2002) argued that if training remains focused on the needs of employees, important changes in developing the performance of the organization might be missed out. As such, it can be inferred that creating effective training programs require balancing the needs of the learner and the needs of the organization. In addition, Sloman (2005, p.349) commented: Training is not about constructing courses based on identified training needs. It is about making a whole series of interventions that encourage a climate in which committed learners are willing and able to acquire relevant knowledge and skills. If employees take part in training half-heartedly, it may prove costly for the organization. Even the best-planned training sessions may prove ineffective if employees are unwilling to participate. Similarly, Barrett and OConnell (2001) observed that a company can provide training to its employees, but the extent to which the training courses are then applied at work depends on the extent to which employees devote effort to learning and apply the new skills. The values projects model of learning also emphasized the importance of motivation, where the employees are willing to implement their learning. I do (Action) I will (Motivation) I Can (Skills) I Know (Knowledge) 3.8 Training Cycle For training to be effective, companies must complete the full training cycle. But as Beardwell and Claydon (2007) rightly said, the popularity of the training cycle is more evident in the rhetoric of the literature than in organizational reality. Stage 1 Identification of Training needs Stage 4 Evaluation of training Stage 2 Plan of training required Stage 3 Implementation of training 3.8.1 Identification of training needs Arthur et al. (2003, p.236) stated that it is important to carry a Training Needs Analysis (TNA) before providing training because it provides a mechanism whereby the questions central to successful training programs can be answered. Prior to training, companies must have a clear idea of what it wants to achieve (Shuttleworth 2004) and whether the organisations needs, objectives and problems can be addressed by training (Arthur et al. 2003). Matens (HRfocus 2005b, p.11) suggested that companies should ask these key questions: Where are we now? Where do we want to go? How do we get there? How can we get commitment from key individuals? McGehee Thayer (1961) recommended a three-tier approach to determine training needs. Arthur et al. (2003) three-step process for assessing training needs is similar to McGehee Thayer (1961). They are as follows: Organisational analysis: Where training should be emphasized within the organization and which organizational goals and problems can be achieved and solved through training. Operational analysis or Task analysis: The skills, knowledge and attitudes necessary for employees to perform their jobs at the desired level. Man analysis: How well the employees are performing their tasks, who needs to be trained and for what. In the process of TNA, managers have to identify relevant training needs through the use of annual performance appraisal procedure to examine the individuals aspirations, how their jobs may change and what training is required (Hallier and Butts 2000). According to HRfocus (2005b), companies should get input about what employees want to be trained in. Although TNA is time-consuming and expensive, it provides greater financial, organizational and individual benefits. Also, training must be top-down, starting with the top team and cascading down the organization to show management commitment and to create an effective, healthy and versatile workforce. While in some organisations, training is considered to be for managers only, in other organisations managers think training is only relevant to workers, but not for them. Indeed, both these attitudes are wrong because training is for everybody (Reynolds, 1994). Similarly, Matens (HRfocus, 2005b) agreed that commitment and support from top management is vital. According to him, management has to show up for classes too. 3.8.1.1 The skills gap It is important for managers to identify skills gap, which is the difference between the skills needed to perform the required task and the skills employees already possess. The Skills Gap Skills needed Skills already acquired 3.8.2 Plan of training required Using a variety of training methods, the skills gap can be filled. In fact, Barrett OConnell (2001) observed that different training methods could encourage or discourage employees to participate in training programs. Similarly, The Learning and Skills Council (2004 cited by Beardwell Claydon 2007, p.317) commented that companies tend to choose inappropriate training methods which are costly, time consuming, have a deleterious effect on employees perceptions of the value of training and ultimately do not lead to increase skills levels in organizations. 3.8.2.1 Matching skills or tasks and training delivery methods Skills and tasks can be classified into three broad categories (Farina and Wheaton 1973; Fleishman and Quaintance 1984; Gold-stein and Ford 2002; cited by Arthur et al. 2003, p.236): Cognitive This relates to the thinking, idea generation, understanding, problem solving, or the knowledge requirements of the job. Interpersonal This relates to interacting with others in a workgroup or with clients and customers, which entails a variety of skills including leadership, communication, conflict management and team-building. Psychomotor This relates to physical or manual activities involving a range of movement from very fine to gross motor coordination. For a specific skill or task, a given training method may be more effective than others. This relationship has been backed by studies from Wexley and Latham (2002) who emphasized on the need to consider skills and task characteristics required to determine the most effective training method. 3.8.2.2 Training techniques On-the-job It is the most popular training method because it is job-specific, relevant, immediate and flexible. A 2006 study by CIPD conveyed that 56% of learning and development professionals agree that on-the-job training is the most effective way for people to learn in organizations (Beardwell and Claydon 2007,p.308). Conversely, Smith et al. (2003) commented that training delivered internally by employees who carry other duties apart from their responsibilities of training might lead to ineffective training because they have not received much training in how to train. On-the-job training includes the following: Demonstration It involves telling or showing trainees how to do a job and then allowing them to get on with it. It is the most commonly used training method (Armstrong 2003) because it is immediate and accessible to most employees. This method is effective if the person giving the demonstration clearly defines what results have been achieved and how they can be improved. However this method can result in the passing of bad or even dangerous working practices. Also, it does not provide a structured learning system where trainees understand the sequence of the training they are following. Job rotation The aim is to increase employees experience by moving them from job to job or department to department. It can be an inefficient and frustrating method of acquiring additional knowledge and skills if it is not carefully planned and controlled (Armstrong 2003). For this method to be effective, a program has to be designed stating what trainees are expected to learn in each department or job. Also, there must be a suitable person to assess whether the trainees are given the right experience and the opportunity to learn. Coaching It is a person-to-person technique to develop individual skills, knowledge and attitudes (Armstrong 2003). It can be very effective if it takes place informally as part of the normal process of management. Coaching consists of providing guidance on how to carry out specific tasks to help individuals learn rather than force-feeding them with instructions on what to do and how to do it. Mentoring It is the process of using specially selected and trained individuals to provide guidance and advice to develop the careers of the employees (Armstrong 2003). The aim is to complement learning on the job. The mentor provides personal support and should not be an immediate superior to enable the employees to talk openly about problems and discuss any concerns frankly. Secondment or attachment It involves the employees widening their skills or learning other skills by visiting other departments. It can also be used to increase awareness and understanding of other departments roles and concerns. Off the job It usually takes place in training areas or centres, away from the employees immediate work positions. It includes lectures, case study, seminars and role-playing amongst others. This method is mainly theoretical. As rightly criticised by Beardwell and Claydon (2007, p.322) this method is frequently pigeon-holed as the old way of doing things and typified as teacher centred, classroom based, process-focused and providing learning that is difficult to transfer on the workplace. It is often criticised as wasteful of time and money, taking the employees away from the practical context. E-learning This is concerned with training delivered by electronic technology through the use of Internet, the World Wide Web and intranet within the organisation. It requires the trainees to take the responsibility for their own learning. The cost-efficiencies of e- learning are more apparent today (HRfocus, 2003). It is also more flexible and adaptable to individual circumstances (Beardwell and Claydon, 2007). However, the need for human contact is important in the training process. The technology cannot replace the need for an explanation from human beings (Cartwright 2003). Implementation of training Research shows that trainers deal with three personality types (HRfocus 2001, p.6) Learners These people are eager to get as much as they can from the program. Vacationers These people consider training, offsite in particular, an opportunity to have as much fun and free time as possible. Prisoners These people attend training only because they feel forced to, not because they want to. The relationship between trainees and trainers is the heart of effective training (Clegg 2000). The latter viewed the trainers flexibility, responsiveness to the trainees need and ability to generate a human relationship with the trainees as essential. In an interview with McNerney (1995), William Bridges argued that the role of the trainer is to guide the trainees toward upgrading their competencies rather than merely teaching a skill. Hale (2003a) recommended trainers to stop worrying about having a box of tricks, icebreakers and gimmicks to impress trainees. Clegg (2000) observed that training courses often consists of too long sessions, which totally drains the enthusiasm of trainers. In fact, trainers must also consider the learning levels of employees owing to differences in educational and experiential backgrounds. Scott Ambler commented in an interview with Wickman (2008) that some people are more visual thinkers and need to see diagrams; some just want to go right into the details and some need to see the bigger picture and need to be walked through all the implications. Brown (1992) recommended a three-part formula for good training courses: Uncover Create a need for the material within the mind of the trainees. Closed minds cannot relate to a personal need for the material. Discover If the trainer effectively uncovers the trainees minds, teaching the knowledge necessary to perform skills will turn into a discovery. Also, people learn faster when presented with an explanation and demonstration. Recover According to Brown (1992), most trainers fail here. Recovery is intended to provide trainees with hands-on experience, which can include role-play and case studies. 3.8.4 Evaluation of training Bedingham (1997) observed that even companies that are committed to training viewed its evaluation as difficult and time-consuming. This is supported by Sloman (2005) who observed that measuring training effectiveness is often neglected. When companies have to put a value on training, many of them do not, are unable, or are unwilling to do so. But evaluation and follow-ups are crucial to the success of training (HRfocus, 2005a) Indeed it is much easy to assess the effectiveness of operational activities through the use of management accounting systems but it is less easy to establish the contribution of training. But how can top management decide on the amount to be invested in training if there is no measurement? As Prahalad (1972, p.169) rightly said: Measurement provides a framework for developing a pattern of resource allocation for the organisation. Beardwell and Claydon (2007) commented that measurements have to go beyond post-course evaluation to measuring wastage, error rates, customer satisfaction, motivation and link specific outcomes to the training delivered. According to HRfocus (2005a, p.5), effectiveness of training can be measured by: How many training participants successfully apply what they have learnt during training programs in their job. How long they continue to apply that learning. How quickly the company will realise the benefits of training for the entire target audience. The main challenge for any training program is to ensure that the learning is transferred back to the workplace. Real-world experience must follow the training course because without application, skills can be easily forgotten. As a Chinese Proverb rightly said: I hear and I forget. I see and I remember. I do and I understand. Similarly, Armstrong (2003,p.563) rightly stated: Transfer of learning is what counts; behaviour on the job is what matters. While some researchers estimate that approximately 25% of skills taught are in use six months after training courses and about 15% after one year, others put the figures as low as 10% (Allan 2008). Unfortunately, training is seen as a collective shrug when it comes to evaluate its impact because it is difficult to evaluate where the learning has been put into action. Evaluation of training is rarely carried out in a useful way either because companies are unsure how to do it or they do not know what to do with the results. It is also viewed as time-consuming. Swanson (2001 cited Beardwell Claydon 2007, p.323) observed: Six out of ten HR and financial directors have little or no idea what return they get on their companys investment in training and many in the HRD profession do not have a predisposition toward measurement and evaluation. But evaluation is important because if the contribution of training cannot be demonstrated, it is likely to be a target for cost-reduction. Often, trainees are asked to fill a feedback form after training sessions. But nothing seems to be done with these responses. As Clegg (2000, p.139) rightly said, its as if the action of taking feedback was a talisman that achieved success in its own right. Similarly, Allan (2008) commented that many trainers measure trainees reactions to a program but stop short there. Feedback is essential for people to know how they are progressing. To learn, employees must feel comfortable to express their thoughts. They should not fear being belittled or marginalized when they disagree with peers or authority figures, ask naive questions, or present a minority viewpoint (Garvin et al, 2008). Unfortunately, negative feedback is considered a criticism to be avoided rather than a desirable thing to make the courses even better (Clegg 2000). 3.8.4.1 Return On Investment (ROI)- Estimating the worth of training ROI indicates the worth and merit of a particular training programme. According to Campbell (1995), ROI is the most appealing to higher management. He defined ROI as the rate at which training returns what was invested. However, ROI assessment of training is a debatable issue due to many aspects to be taken into account, some of which are very difficult to quantify. As Armstrong (2003, p.550) rightly observed: Ideally ROI should be calculated, but in practice it can be difficult to produce realistic figures. What value can a company place on improved morale, reduced stress levels, better-qualified staff and improved time management? All of these can be returns on training investment. But attaching a value and relating this to a single cause, that is training is often impossible. Indeed, ROI is far from being a workable model in practice. A survey carried out in USA revealed that only 7% of the organizations surveyed evaluated ROI in training. While in UK, 57% admitted that evaluation was becoming more important. However, only 27% are actually using action plans after training (Hale, 2003a). 3.8.4.2 Models of Training Evaluation Donald Kirkpatricks four-level model (1959 cited Arthur et al. 2003) is the most popular and consist of: Reaction criteria- what the trainees thought and felt about the training. Learning criteria- the resulting increase in knowledge or capability. Behaviour criteria- extent of applied learning back on the job. Results criteria- the effects on the business or environment resulting from the trainees performance. Previous research in corporate training showed that in practice it is difficult to measure the last two criteria because they are influenced by a number of factors (Van der Klink and Streumer, 2002). Hale (2003a) argued that it is time to shatter the myths that have emerged due to the reliance on the Kirkpatrick model. He identified the following myths: Myth 1: Learning is the responsibility of the trainer Companies often expect the trainer to fix all problems. When businesses cannot prove the value of training, they tend to put the blame on the trainer, not the learner. Myth 2: Courses prove learning Training departments prepare reports showing, for example, the number of training days, the duration of the training and the number of courses run to prove that they have been doing their job and how the budget has been spent. But these provide little or no indication about the effectiveness of training. Myth 3: Good course evaluation mean learning Kirkpatrick level 1 is the easiest to carry out and thus most organisations are evaluating in this way. However, happiness does not necessarily imply learning. Often, people learn the hard way through difficult and painful experiences. When trainers are aware that they are being assessed at the end of the training, they can use applied psychology to make the trainees in a state of pleasure before completing the evaluation forms (Hale 2003a, p.30). Bedingham (1997) supported Hale (2003a) by arguing that the apparently best courses could simply be those where the trainer has been able to develop a good rapport with the trainees. In his second article, Hale (2003b) presented a fourth myth: Myth 4: Real learning takes place in the classroom Kirkpatrick level 2 assesses the extent to which the trainee recalls the learning after the training. In a survey carried out by Hale (2003b) among 3,000 managers about the most significant learning experiences in their lives, none of them quoted training courses or classroom based training but job experiences. In fact, since the publication of Kirkpatrick model, there have been dramatic changes in organisational structures, cultures, technologies and training methods. Yet the HR, training and development community continues to rely predominantly on the old Kirkpatrick model in discussing the evaluation of training (Hale, 2003a). Many companies do not go beyond measuring the first two Kirkpatrick levels. As per CIPD Survey (2006 cited Beardwell Calydon 2007, p.326), 98% of those surveyed measure Kirkpatricks level 1 outcomes, 75% measure level 2, 62% level 3 and only 36% go as far as level 4; which is the most important. Missing from Kirkpatricks model is the ultimate level, which has been added by Hamblin (1974 cited Beardwell and Claydon 2007,p.326) that is the extent to which the training has affected the ultimate profitability and survival of the organisation. 4.0 Research Methodology 4.1 Research Process 4.1.1 Problem definition and research objectives It is widely acknowledged that a well-defined problem may be considered to be half-solved. 4.1.1.1 Research Problem In many organisations, training is considered to be a low status activity and not an integral part of the business plan. Research states that many HRD never really examine how training can effectively promote organizational objectives, or how training activities should be altered in the light of business plans. It is also often believed that the responsibility of the HRD is to organise training courses, trainers have to train, managers manage work place performance and thus trainees alone are responsible for applying into their workplace what they have learnt in training courses. Through an extensive literature search, it was noted that training should be viewed as a continuous process. Prior to training, a TNA must first be carried out and after training; evaluation and follow-ups must be conducted. But to what extent are these being applied in companies remain a big question. Therefore, HSBC, one of the leading banks in Mauritius has been chosen as the company in which the effectiveness of training will be analyzed. 4.1.1.2 Research objectives Once the problem had been located and defined, the research objectives were set since these would help to identify what information were needed to solve the problem. Therefore the objectives for this study are to: Analyze the factors that contribute to the effectiveness of training Examine the training process at HSBC Investigate the extent to which training at HSBC is effective Determine if a training plan is in place at HSBC. Investigate whether a system of evaluation and follow-ups are in place at HSBC 4.1.2 Research design This acts as a plan or framework which guides the collection and analysis of data. For this research, exploratory and descriptive designs were used. 4.1.2.1 Exploratory Research Exploratory research is far more flexible and dynamic. It was used to gain a deeper understanding of training and the factors that contribute to its effectiveness. A search of the literature was conducted to gather preliminary information. A face-to-face interview with the Recruitment and Development manager of HSBC was also conducted to gain a better insight of training at HSBC. Exploratory research was also used to develop hypotheses. Developing hypothesis Hypothesis 1: Relationship between frequency of training and how employees viewed their effectiveness at work after delivery of training courses. Hypothesis 2: Relationship between preference for training method and age. Hypothesis 3: Relationship between frequency of training and current position of employees. Hypothesis 4: Relationship between whether training will make a difference in the way employees do their work and their current position. These hypotheses were tested based on data obtained from the questionnaire. 4.1.2.2 Descriptive Research Although descriptive research is more rigid and formal, it was used to provide an accurate description of the characteristics of training at HSBC. Therefore, a survey by way of a questionnaire was distributed to the sample of employees who went on training and an interview with the Recruitment and Development manager was conducted. In addition, the following issues were considered when designing the research plan: Style of research activities Types of data Research instrument 4.1.2.3 Style of research activities For this study both quantitative and qualitative research were used. For quantitative research, a questionnaire was given to a sample of employees who received training. The data obtained were represented on pie charts, histograms and bar charts to show the frequency of occurrence. With the data inputted on SPSS, statistical analysis was also carried out. For qualitative research, an unstructured interview was conducted with the Recruitment and Development manager to obtain a detailed description of training at HSBC. 4.1.2.3 Types of data There are two types of data: secondary and primary. For this study, a combination of both was used. 4.1.2.3.1 Secondary data These are data collected for some other purpose rather than for the immediate study at hand. Sources of secondary data for this study consisted of online databases such as Emerald Library, journal articles from the university library, internet, newspapers, books and website of HSBC. Although secondary data are economical and quicker to obtain, they proved insufficient for the present study and thus primary data were generated. 4.1.2.3.2 Primary data Through a survey research, primary data were collected for the purpose of the investigation at hand. A questionnaire was distributed among a sample number of employees who received training and an unstructured interview with the Recruitment and Development manager was conducted. 4.1.2.4 Research instrument For the purpose of this study, an unstructured personal interview and a questionnaire were considered to be a suitable means of collecting data about peoples opinions, attitudes, preferences, knowledge and satisfaction. 4.1.2.4.1 Unstructured personal interview The face-to-face meeting took place with the Recruitment and Development manager at her office. The interviewees responses were audio taped. The main advantage with this method is that ambiguous questions could be clarified. 4.1.2.4.2 Questionnaire A self-administered questionnaire with a formalised set of questions was designed to ensure that each person answers the same questions in a predetermined order. This provides an efficient way of collecting responses from a large sample. When designing the questionnaire, care had been taken to ensure reliability and validity of the data to be collected. Issues such as clear layout, question content, response format, question wording, question sequence were taken into consideration to ensure that the questionnaire collect the precise data needed to achieve the objectives of the study. In an attempt to maximise the response rate, a cover letter was attached with each questionnaire. The letter explained the purpose of the survey, the time taken to fill in the questionnaire and assured confidentiality. (See Appendix.) In addition, to facilitate analysis of data, numerical codes were already assigned to answers before administering the questionnaire. 4.1.2.4.2.1 Types of questions The questionnaire consisted of the following types of questions: (See Appendix.) Open-ended The respondents were required to answer in their own words in as great depth as they wished. For these types of questions, the respondents answers were categorized and unitized. Closed- ended The respondents were provided with a number of alternative answers from which they were required to choose. Four types of closed-ended questions were used: Dichotomous The respondents were required to choose between two categories. But for questions where the proportion of neutral response was perceived to be high, a neutral alternative was included. Multiple choice The respondents were required to choose from a list of possible answers. For questions where all the list of possible alternatives could not be included, other category accompanied by please specify was used. Scaled Through the use of likert scale, the respondents were asked to select their level of agreement or disagreement from an odd number of categories (5-category). Ranking There was only one ranking question where respondents were asked to rank their preferences from a list of training experiences. 4.1.2.4.3 Pretest A pilot test of seven questionnaires was conducted: one executive, two officers and four clerks. The Recruitment and Development manager also went through the questionnaire. The purpose of the pretest was to check the layout, question sequence, word meaning, question difficulty, branching instructions and the time taken to complete the questionnaire. Minor corrections were made to the original proposal. 4.1.3 Sampling plan Once the problem had been clearly specified, the research objectives set, appropriate research design and data collection instrument developed, the next step was to select those elements from which the information would be collected. For this study, it would be unrealistic, costly and very time-consuming to target the whole population of HSBC. Sampling saves time, an important consideration for this study, given that there is a tight deadline. 4.1.3.1 Population A population represents the full set of items or people under investigation. HSBC has a population of 391 employees. It must be noted that non-clerical level has been excluded from this population because they are not eligible for training. Different Levels Number of employees Executive Level 69 Officer Level 99 Clerical Level 223 Total 391 Table 1: Population of HSBC 4.1.3.2 Sample frame It is the list from which employees names were drawn. The HRD of HSBC keeps a database of all employees who went on training. 4.1.3.3 Sampling unit It is an individual element of the population to be sampled. For this study, the sampling unit consisted of employees who went on training programs. 4.1.3.4 Sampling method This can be divided into two types: Probability or random sampling Here, each member of the population has a known and equal chance of being selected. Non-probability or non-random sampling Here, each member of the population does not have an equal or known chance of being selected because the selection of sample depends on judgment. For this study probability sampling was used. More precisely, stratified random sampling. It was found to be more appropriate because the sample frame had to be divided into three strata: executive, officer and clerical. Then, a random sample of executives, officers and clerks who went on training sessions were selected from each stratum. 4.1.3.5 Sampling size Different Levels Number of employees Sample size Executive Level 69 24 Officer Level 99 35 Clerical Level 223 81 Total 391 140 A sample size of 140 employees over 391 was randomly selected. Each stratum was proportionally represented. This can be illustrated as follows: Table 2: Sample size 4.1.3.6 Select sample Since the identity of those participating in the survey had to be kept anonymous, access to the database containing the list of employees who went on training was denied. Therefore, it was the Recruitment and Development manager who executed the stratified random sampling after being informed about the sampling size. 4.1.4 Contact methods Once the sampling plan was laid out, the next thing was to determine how to contact the respondents to administer the questionnaire. First of all, a contact was made with the Recruitment and Development manager through email who then scheduled a meeting at her office to conduct the personal interview. With her permission, the interview was audiotaped. Concerning the questionnaires to be filled by employees, it was agreed that she would distribute the questionnaires not only because she knew who went on training but also for confidentiality reasons. 4.1.5 Data gathering Data was collected during the months of June. The employees were given two weeks to fill in the questionnaire. 4.2 Limitations and problems encountered This study could not cover a numerical analysis to assess the cost effectiveness of training such as ROI, cost-benefit ratio and bottom line evaluation to determine the contribution of training on trainees productivity and the total value added to the organization. This was due to confidentiality of internal information. According to Roscoes table for determining sample size from a given population (see Appendix), a sample size of 196 should have been used for a population of around 391. But given that the Recruitment and Development manager were willing to distribute only 140 questionnaires, a sample size of 140 was thus selected. Deadline for submitting the questionnaires had to be extended to increase the response rate. When carrying a questionnaire, there is a limit to the number of questions that can be asked. With personal interviews, detailed beliefs and feelings can be obtained from respondents. But given the large sample size, it was impossible to carry a personal interview with each employee. 4.3 Ethical Considerations This research was conducted in a way that ensures its academic integrity and scientific validity. No attempt was made to intentionally falsify or invent any information or citation. By following The University of Mauritius Guide to the Harvard System of Referencing, all materials written or produced by others and mentioned in this study, were given their due recognition. A true description of the different research processes involved in this study was also reported. In addition, participation in this study was completely voluntary. Respondents were given sufficient information on the cover letter (see Appendix.) for them to decide about participation or nonparticipation. Similarly, the identity of those who participated in the questionnaire as well as their responses and opinions remained confidential. The results obtained were reported honestly. No attempt was made to falsify any information. It must be noted that this study does not attempt to cause harm to anyone, especially HSBC. Actually, this study aims at helping HSBC to improve the effectiveness of its training programs.